Workshop Layout and Vehicle Maintenance

1

This section covers the layout and design of garages and automobile workshops, measuring instruments, types of measurement and errors, workshop tools and equipment, their calibration, and on-board diagnosis (OBD) with a diagnostic procedure.

2

Garage and Workshop — Definitions • Garage: a building for parking/storing vehicles, possibly with minor servicing (washing, lubrication).

3

Service station: routine servicing, lubrication, minor repairs.

4

Workshop: diagnosis, repair and overhaul of vehicles and units (engine, transmission, body).

5

Authorised dealer workshop (3S — sales, service, spares). • Types of workshop: dealer/authorised service centre, general repair workshop, specialised shops (auto-electrical, body and paint, tyre, fuel-injection), fleet (transport company) workshop, central overhaul workshop, mobile workshop.

6

Workshop Layout and Design • Site selection: accessible from main road, adequate area for entry/exit, parking and future expansion, electricity and water supply, drainage, zoning/environmental permission, away from residential nuisance, safe from floods. • Layout principles: logical flow of vehicles (reception → inspection/diagnosis → washing → repair bays → quality check/road test → delivery) with minimum back-tracking; one-way traffic; adequate turning space; separate sections for noisy/dirty/hazardous work (body shop, paint booth, battery room, washing); good natural lighting and ventilation (exhaust extraction); fire safety (extinguishers, exits); storage close to point of use; offices and customer lounge near reception. • Typical sections: reception/service advisor, inspection and diagnosis bay, general repair (mechanical) bays, washing and lubrication bay, engine/unit repair shop, electrical and battery shop, tyre shop, body shop (denting), paint booth (with baking, filtered ventilation), machine shop, welding, spare-parts store, tool room, wheel alignment bay, road-test area, waste-oil and scrap storage, offices, staff amenities. • Bay arrangement: dead-end (blind) bays — vehicle enters and reverses out (angular or perpendicular to aisle, economical in area); drive-through (straight-through) bays — enters from one side and leaves from the other (washing lines, production-type service); service bays often ≈ 3.5–4 m × 6–7 m for cars, larger for buses/trucks. • Equipment layout: lifts (two-post, four-post, scissor), pits (for heavy vehicles), compressed-air lines, lubrication dispensing, exhaust extraction, crane/hoists, workbenches.

7

Measuring Instruments Instrument Use / least count Vernier calliper Outside, inside, depth;

8

LC = 1 MSD − 1 VSD, typically 0.02 mm (0.05, 0.1 mm) Outside micrometer Crankshaft journals, piston diameter;

9

LC = pitch ÷ thimble divisions = 0.5/50 = 0.01 mm (0.001 mm with vernier) Inside micrometer, telescopic gauge, cylinder bore dial gauge Cylinder bore diameter, taper and ovality Dial indicator (dial gauge) Run-out of discs, crankshaft end-float, gear backlash;

10

LC 0.01 mm Feeler gauge Valve tappet clearance, spark-plug gap, piston-ring end gap Plastigauge Bearing oil clearance Straight edge + feeler gauge Cylinder-head/block face flatness (warpage) Torque wrench Tightening to specified torque (click-type, beam, electronic) Compression gauge / cylinder leak-down tester Cylinder sealing condition (rings, valves, gasket) Vacuum gauge Intake manifold vacuum — engine condition Multimeter, test lamp, oscilloscope Voltage, current, resistance, waveforms Hydrometer / refractometer Battery SG, coolant freezing point Exhaust gas analyser / smoke opacity meter CO, HC, CO2, O2, λ in petrol vehicles; diesel smoke opacity (HSU / k-value) Timing light, tachometer, tyre-tread depth gauge, pressure gauges Ignition timing, rpm, tyre wear, fuel/oil pressure Types of Measurement and Errors • Direct measurement (compare with a standard — ruler, vernier) and indirect measurement (calculated from other quantities — power from torque and speed); comparative measurement (dial gauge against a master/slip gauge); contact and non-contact (optical, laser); linear, angular, surface-finish, form (roundness, flatness) measurements; static and dynamic measurement. • Accuracy = closeness to the true value; precision = closeness of repeated readings to each other (repeatability); resolution = smallest change that can be detected; sensitivity = output change per unit input; range and least count.

11

Error type Examples / remedy Gross (human) errors Misreading, wrong recording, wrong instrument — careful work, repeat readings Systematic errors Instrumental (zero error, wear, calibration), environmental (temperature, humidity, vibration), observational (parallax), method errors — can be corrected by calibration/correction Random errors Small unpredictable variations — reduced by taking many readings and averaging (statistical analysis) Zero error Positive zero error is subtracted; negative zero error is added to the reading Tools and Equipment • Hand tools: spanners (open, ring, combination), sockets and ratchets, screwdrivers, pliers, hammers, Allen keys, pullers, feeler gauges, files, hacksaw, taps and dies, piston-ring expander and compressor, valve-spring compressor, oil-filter wrench. • Power tools: pneumatic impact wrench, drills, grinders, air compressor. • Workshop equipment: vehicle lifts/hoists, garage jacks, axle stands, engine crane and stand, hydraulic press, brake-drum/disc lathe, valve-refacing machine, cylinder boring and honing machines, wheel balancer, wheel aligner, tyre changer, battery charger, AC recovery/recharge station, welding sets, spray booth, washing equipment (high-pressure washer), lubrication equipment (grease gun, oil dispenser), headlamp aligner, brake tester (roller), scan tool. • Safety: use axle stands (never work under a vehicle supported only by a jack), wheel chocks, PPE (goggles, gloves, safety shoes), fire extinguishers (CO2/dry powder for electrical and fuel fires), exhaust extraction, proper disposal of used oil and batteries.

12

Calibration of Tools and Equipment • Calibration: comparing an instrument's readings with a standard of higher accuracy and adjusting or recording corrections — ensures accuracy and legal/quality compliance (ISO 9001, ISO/IEC 17025). • Traceability: an unbroken chain of calibrations to national standards (in Nepal, the Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology — NBSM) and ultimately to SI units. • Periodic calibration intervals (e.g., torque wrenches annually or after ≈ 5 000 cycles; exhaust gas analysers with span gases; micrometers against slip gauges/setting standards; pressure gauges against dead-weight testers); calibration labels and records; tools found out of tolerance are tagged and withdrawn.

13

On-Board Diagnosis (OBD) and Diagnostic Procedure • OBD-I (manufacturer-specific, 1980s);

14

OBD-II (mandatory in USA from 1996) and EOBD (Europe from 2001 petrol / 2004 diesel), India BS-VI (OBD-II): standard 16-pin DLC (J1962) connector, standard DTC format, readiness monitors, freeze-frame data, live data. • DTC format: letter — P powertrain, B body, C chassis, U network; first digit 0 = generic (SAE), 1 = manufacturer-specific; e.g., P0300 random misfire, P0171 system too lean, P0420 catalyst efficiency below threshold. • OBD monitors: misfire, fuel system, comprehensive components (continuous); catalyst, heated catalyst, EVAP, secondary air, O2 sensor and heater, EGR (non-continuous).

15

The MIL (check-engine lamp) warns the driver; flashing MIL = severe misfire (catalyst damage risk). • Diagnostic procedure:

16

(1) verify the customer complaint (road test);

17

(2) preliminary visual checks (fluids, leaks, connectors, vacuum hoses);

18

(3) connect scan tool — read and record DTCs and freeze-frame;

19

(4) study live data and service information/TSBs;

20

(5) pinpoint tests with multimeter/oscilloscope following the fault tree;

21

(6) repair or replace the faulty part;

22

(7) clear codes and verify repair (drive cycle, readiness monitors complete);

1

This section covers Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) in automobile workshops and dealerships, inventory management and control of spare parts, and the calculation of the number of workshop posts, number of workers, and areas of the different workshop sections.

2

Workshop Operation Cycle • Appointment → vehicle reception and job card (repair order) with customer complaints and estimate → diagnosis and approval → parts requisition from store → work allocation to technicians (flat-rate or actual time) → quality check → invoicing → delivery and follow-up (customer satisfaction). • Key performance indicators: vehicles handled per day, bay/post utilisation, technician productivity and efficiency (sold hours ÷ attended hours), repeat repairs (comeback rate), turnaround time, parts fill rate, customer satisfaction index (CSI).

3

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) • ERP: integrated software (single database) that links all business functions — sales, service, spare parts, inventory, purchasing, finance and accounting, HR/payroll, CRM and reporting.

4

In automobile dealerships it is often called a Dealer Management System (DMS) (e.g., SAP, Oracle, Microsoft Dynamics, manufacturer-supplied DMS). • Workshop-related ERP modules: appointment scheduling, job cards, labour time standards, technician clocking, parts issue against job card, warranty claims, vehicle history, invoicing, service reminders (SMS), feedback. • Benefits: real-time information, fewer errors and duplicate entries, better inventory control, faster billing, traceable vehicle history, management reports and decision making, standardised processes.

5

Limitations: high cost, implementation time, need for training and data discipline, customisation difficulty, dependence on IT infrastructure.

6

Inventory Management and Control • Objectives: have the right parts available when needed (high fill rate) with minimum capital locked up, minimum obsolescence, damage and pilferage. • Inventory costs: ordering cost (per order), carrying (holding) cost (interest, storage, insurance, obsolescence — ≈ 15–25% of item value per year), stock-out cost (lost sales, idle vehicles). • Economic Order Quantity:

7

EOQ = √(2DS/H) (D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = holding cost per unit per year); at EOQ, annual ordering cost = annual holding cost. • Reorder level (ROL) = demand during lead time + safety stock = d × L + SS.

8

Maximum stock = ROL + EOQ − (minimum usage × minimum lead time); minimum stock = ROL − (average usage × average lead time). • Stock systems: fixed-order-quantity (Q) system (order EOQ when stock falls to ROL) and periodic review (P) system; two-bin system;

9

FIFO issue (first in, first out) — important for items with shelf life (batteries, rubber parts, oils).

10

Selective control Basis Use ABC analysis Annual consumption value:

11

A ≈ 10–20% items, 70–80% value;

12

C ≈ 50–60% items, 5–10% value Tight control and frequent review of A items VED Criticality:

13

Vital, Essential, Desirable Always stock vital parts (e.g., brake parts for fleet) FSN Movement:

14

Fast, Slow, Non-moving Identify dead stock for disposal HML Unit price:

15

High, Medium, Low Purchase and security decisions SDE Availability:

16

Scarce, Difficult, Easy Imported parts with long lead time • Store practice: part numbering and bin locations, stock cards/ERP records, periodic and perpetual inventory (cycle counting), material requisition slips against job cards, goods received notes, inspection of incoming parts, returns of cores (exchange units), storing hazardous materials safely. • Inventory turnover ratio = cost of parts sold ÷ average inventory value — higher is better (≈ 6–12 per year for dealer parts).

17

Calculation of Workshop Posts, Workers and Areas A post (work station) is a place equipped for servicing one vehicle at a time — e.g., a lift, a pit, a washing or alignment station.

18

Workshop design starts from the annual volume of work (labour content). • Annual labour content T (man-hours) = number of vehicles × annual servicing/repair frequency × standard labour hours per job (taken from time norms for each type of service/repair; adjusted for vehicle age, road and climatic conditions). • Number of posts for a type of work:

19

X = Tpost / (Dw · tsh · C · P · η) where Tpost = annual man-hours performed on posts;

20

Dw = working days per year (≈ 300); tsh = hours per shift (≈ 8);

21

C = number of shifts;

22

P = average number of workers working simultaneously on one post (≈ 1–2 for cars, 2–4 for heavy vehicles); η = post utilisation coefficient (≈ 0.85–0.95). • For flow-line (conveyor-type) servicing: takt τ = time a vehicle stays on each post = (labour minutes per vehicle on the line ÷ workers on the line) + transfer time; rhythm R = 60·tsh·C/Ndaily (minutes between successive vehicles leaving the line); number of lines = τ/R. • Number of workers (technicians):

23

Ptech = T / Fw, where Fw = annual working-time fund of one worker — nominal ≈ 2 000–2 100 h (working days × shift hours) or effective ≈ 1 750–1 850 h (after deducting leave, sickness, holidays).

24

Using the nominal fund gives the number of jobs (posts) required; the effective fund gives the number of persons on the pay-roll.

25

Auxiliary workers ≈ 15–30% of production workers; supervisors and administrative staff additionally. • Area of post zones (service/repair bays):

26

F = fa · X · Kp, fa = plan area of the vehicle (length × width), X = number of posts, Kp = density coefficient allowing for passages and manoeuvring (≈ 6–7 for one-side post arrangement; ≈ 4–5 for posts on both sides of an aisle — values vary between design norms). • Area of production sections (engine, electrical, machine shop, etc.):

27

Fs = feq · Ks, feq = total plan area of equipment, Ks = density coefficient (≈ 3–5 depending on section); or Fs = f1 + f2(P − 1) using area per worker norms (≈ 8–20 m² per worker). • Storage areas: from stock of parts/materials (kg or m³) and permissible loading per m²; parking/waiting area = fa × number of vehicle places × K (≈ 2.5–3); plus washing, offices and amenity areas (≈ 3–4 m² per employee for amenities).

28

Worked example (car service station) Calculation Annual work on posts T = 36 000 man-hours Working time Dw = 300 days, 1 shift of 8 h, P = 1.5 workers/post, η = 0.9 Number of posts X = 36 000/(300 × 8 × 1 × 1.5 × 0.9) = 36 000/3 240 ≈ 11.1 → 11–12 posts Technicians Ptech = 36 000/1 800 = 20 persons (effective fund) Post zone area Car 4.5 m × 1.8 m = 8.1 m²;

29

F = 8.1 × 12 × 6 ≈ 583 m²

1

This section covers the purposes of vehicle maintenance and the types of maintenance and repair, with their advantages and limitations, and typical maintenance schedules.

2

Purposes of Maintenance • Keep the vehicle safe, reliable and roadworthy; prevent breakdowns and accidents; maintain performance and fuel economy; keep emissions within legal limits; extend vehicle and component life; reduce operating cost and downtime; retain resale value; comply with warranty and fitness-test requirements. • Maintenance = activities to keep the vehicle in good condition (inspection, cleaning, lubrication, adjustment, replacement of wearing parts); repair = restoring a failed or damaged part/unit to working condition; overhaul = dismantling, inspecting, reconditioning or replacing parts of a unit to restore it to near-new condition.

3

Types of Maintenance Type Description Advantages Limitations Breakdown (run-to-failure, corrective) Repair only after failure No planning cost; full use of part life Unexpected stoppage, secondary damage, accidents, high repair cost and downtime Preventive (scheduled / periodic) Planned servicing at fixed km or time intervals (oil change, filters, plugs, belts, brake inspection) Fewer breakdowns, planned downtime, safety, longer life, warranty compliance Parts may be replaced before end of life; cost of routine work; some failures still occur Predictive (condition-based) Monitor condition (oil analysis, vibration, OBD data, tyre tread, brake-pad sensors, telematics) and act when deterioration is detected Maintenance only when needed; early fault detection; best use of part life Needs instruments, trained staff and data systems; initial cost Corrective / improvement (design-out) Modify design or practice to eliminate repeated failures Removes root cause Needs analysis, engineering input and cost Opportunistic Doing due tasks when the vehicle is already in for other work Saves downtime Needs coordination Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) Operator (driver) involvement — daily checks, cleanliness, small repairs Early detection, ownership, less downtime Requires training and culture change Reliability-centred maintenance (RCM) Choose the strategy per component based on failure modes and consequences Cost-effective, safety-focused Analysis effort Levels / Schedules of Maintenance Level Typical work Daily (driver) checks Fuel, engine oil, coolant, brake fluid, tyre pressure and condition, lights, horn, wipers, leaks, brakes, battery; walk-around Weekly / periodic service ('A' service) Clean air filter, check fan belt, battery electrolyte, lubrication of chassis points (grease nipples), clutch/brake adjustment, wheel nuts Regular service (≈ 5 000–10 000 km; 'B' service) Engine oil and oil filter change, check/replace air and fuel filters, spark plugs, brakes, suspension, steering, lights, tyre rotation Major service (≈ 20 000–40 000 km; 'C' service) Spark plugs, coolant, brake fluid, transmission oil, timing belt (≈ 60 000–100 000 km), valve clearance, wheel alignment, full inspection Minor overhaul (top overhaul) Decarbonising, valve grinding/lapping, gasket replacement, ring replacement Major overhaul Complete engine reconditioning — reboring/honing, crankshaft grinding, new pistons and bearings; unit overhaul of gearbox, axles • Signs that overhaul is needed: low compression, excessive oil consumption and blue smoke, blow-by, low oil pressure, knocking noises, loss of power, high fuel consumption. • Fleet maintenance management: vehicle history records, maintenance schedule, job cards, spare-parts planning, cost per km analysis, MTBF (mean time between failures) and MTTR (mean time to repair), availability = MTBF/(MTBF + MTTR), vehicle replacement decisions (economic life).

4

Common Repair Practices • Engine: cylinder reboring (oversize pistons in steps of 0.25 mm/0.50 mm…) and honing (cross-hatch pattern for oil retention), crankshaft regrinding (undersize bearings), valve seat cutting and lapping, decarbonising, cylinder-head resurfacing, leak testing. • Chassis: brake drum/disc skimming, lining replacement, bearing replacement and adjustment, clutch replacement, steering and suspension joint replacement, wheel alignment. • Body: denting, welding, filling, painting (primer, base coat, clear coat), rust prevention; electrical fault repairs using wiring diagrams.

1

This section covers the role of maintenance and repair in pollution control, methods of vehicular pollution control, the evaporative emission control system, exhaust gas recirculation, closed-loop control, catalytic converters, particulate traps and noise pollution control.

2

Sources of Vehicle Emissions Source Share / pollutants Exhaust (tail-pipe) Major source — CO, HC, NOx, PM (soot), CO2, SO2 (from sulphur in fuel) Crankcase blow-by ≈ 20–25% of HC in uncontrolled petrol engines — controlled by PCV (positive crankcase ventilation) valve that routes blow-by into the intake Evaporative Fuel vapour (HC) from tank and fuel system (≈ 15–20% of HC in uncontrolled vehicles) — diurnal, hot-soak and running losses Non-exhaust Brake and tyre wear particles, road dust resuspension (significant in Kathmandu Valley) Role of Maintenance and Repair in Pollution Control • Poorly maintained vehicles are the largest emitters: a few 'gross polluters' produce a large fraction of total emissions. • Maintenance actions: correct air-fuel ratio and idle CO setting; clean air filter (clogged filter → rich mixture, black smoke); healthy spark plugs and ignition timing (misfire → high HC and catalyst damage); correct injector condition and injection timing (diesel smoke); valve clearance; replacing worn rings (blue smoke); working O2 sensor and catalyst;

3

EGR and PCV valves clean; correct tyre pressure and wheel alignment (fuel economy); proper engine oil grade; repairing exhaust leaks and silencers (noise). • Inspection and maintenance (I/M) programmes: periodic emission testing — idle CO/HC test for petrol vehicles and free-acceleration smoke opacity test for diesels; pollution-under-control certificates or green stickers (as used in Nepal) for passing vehicles.

4

Vehicular Pollution Control Methods Approach Examples Engine design modifications Combustion chamber design, multi-valve, lower crevice volume, higher compression with knock control, electronic fuel injection with λ-control, variable valve timing, GDI, improved diesel injection (CRDI, high pressure, multiple injections), turbo-intercooling Fuel modifications Unleaded petrol (lead poisons catalysts and is toxic), low-sulphur fuels (≤ 10 ppm for Euro 5/6, BS-VI), oxygenates, higher cetane, alternative fuels (CNG, LPG, biofuels, electricity) After-treatment devices Catalytic converters (TWC, DOC), DPF/GPF, SCR, LNT, EGR, secondary air injection, thermal reactors Evaporative & crankcase controls EVAP charcoal canister and purge;

5

PCV system Traffic and policy measures Emission standards, I/M programmes, phasing out old vehicles, public transport and electric mobility, traffic management, low-emission zones, fuel-quality regulation Evaporative Emission Control System (EVAP) • Sealed fuel tank with a pressure/vacuum cap; vapour from the tank (and from carburettor float bowl in older vehicles) is routed to an activated-charcoal canister which adsorbs HC vapours while the engine is off. • When the engine runs (warm, closed loop), the ECM opens the canister purge solenoid valve; manifold vacuum draws fresh air through the canister vent, desorbing the vapours which are burnt in the engine.

6

Roll-over valve prevents fuel spilling if the vehicle overturns;

7

OBD-II leak detection uses a vent valve and pressure sensor (detects leaks as small as 0.5 mm) — e.g., a loose fuel cap sets a code.

8

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) • Purpose: reduce NOx.

9

A portion (≈ 5–15% in SI, up to ≈ 30–50% in diesels at part load) of exhaust gas is returned to the intake; the inert gas (CO2, H2O) dilutes the charge and has higher heat capacity → lower peak combustion temperature → less thermal (Zeldovich) NOx. • Components:

10

EGR valve (vacuum or electronically operated with position sensor), EGR cooler (cooled EGR — more effective), passages.

11

Not used at idle (rough running) and full load (power loss); internal EGR by valve overlap (VVT). • Drawbacks: slight loss of power and efficiency, increased PM in diesels, carbon deposits clogging the valve and intake (maintenance needed).

12

Closed-Loop Control System • The ECM uses the oxygen (λ) sensor signal upstream of the catalyst to continuously correct injection quantity so that the mixture oscillates narrowly around λ = 1 — the only window in which a three-way catalyst converts all three pollutants efficiently (> 90%). • Open loop during cold start/warm-up and full load; the downstream O2 sensor monitors catalyst oxygen-storage (efficiency) for OBD.

13

Catalytic Converters Type Function / notes Oxidation catalyst (two-way;

14

DOC) Oxidises CO → CO2 and HC → CO2 + H2O (Pt, Pd); used on diesels (DOC) where excess O2 is present; also converts NO → NO2 for DPF regeneration Three-way catalyst (TWC) Petrol engines at λ ≈ 1: oxidises CO and HC and reduces NOx to N2; noble metals platinum, palladium (oxidation) and rhodium (NOx reduction); ceria (CeO2) for oxygen storage Construction Ceramic (cordierite) or metallic honeycomb monolith (≈ 400–900 cells/in²) coated with washcoat (γ-alumina) carrying the precious metals, held in a stainless-steel shell with a mat Light-off temperature ≈ 250–300 °C (50% conversion) — most cold-start emissions occur before light-off; close-coupled catalysts, secondary air, electrically heated catalysts help Damage / poisoning Lead, phosphorus and zinc (oil additives), sulphur, silicon poison it; overheating (misfire, rich running) melts the substrate — so never run with misfiring plugs • Diesel NOx after-treatment:

15

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) — aqueous urea solution (AdBlue/DEF, 32.5% urea) injected into exhaust forms ammonia which reduces NOx to N2 + H2O over a catalyst (≈ 90% reduction);

16

Lean NOx Trap (LNT) — stores NOx and periodically regenerates with a rich pulse.

17

Particulate Traps • Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF): wall-flow honeycomb of cordierite or silicon carbide with alternate channels plugged — exhaust must pass through the porous walls, trapping > 95% of soot particles. • Regeneration (burning off collected soot to prevent excessive back-pressure): passive — continuous oxidation by NO2 at ≈ 250–400 °C (CRT system with upstream DOC); active — raising exhaust temperature to ≈ 550–650 °C by post-injection/extra fuel, throttling or electric heaters, triggered by differential pressure sensor; fuel-borne catalyst additives lower ignition temperature.

18

Ash (from oil additives) accumulates and needs cleaning — use low-ash (low-SAPS) oils. • Gasoline particulate filters (GPF) are used on GDI engines for Euro 6d/BS-VI particle-number limits.

19

Noise Pollution Control • Vehicle noise sources: engine (combustion, mechanical), intake and exhaust, cooling fan, transmission, tyre–road noise (dominant above ≈ 50 km/h), aerodynamic noise, horns, brakes, body rattles. • Control methods: silencers (mufflers) — reactive (expansion chambers, resonators; reflection/interference — low frequencies) and absorptive/dissipative (perforated tubes in glass wool — high frequencies); intake resonators; engine encapsulation and sound-deadening materials; low-noise tyres and quieter road surfaces (porous asphalt); fan clutches; balanced rotating parts; regular maintenance (repair leaking or damaged exhausts, loose parts); banning illegal modified silencers and pressure horns. • Regulation: vehicle noise limits (pass-by noise test, e.g., UN ECE R51), horn noise limits; traffic management — no-horn zones (Kathmandu Valley has enforced a no-horn rule since 2017), speed limits, noise barriers.

20

Noise is measured in dB(A) with a sound-level meter;

21

3 dB increase ≈ doubling of sound energy.

1

This section covers vehicle emission norms (EURO, Bharat Stage and Nepal standards), road safety standards, road transport management, and road norms and standards.

2

EURO Emission Standards • European Union standards (directives/regulations) set limits for CO, HC, NMHC, NOx, HC + NOx, PM and PN (particle number) for new vehicles, measured on a chassis dynamometer over a standard driving cycle — NEDC formerly, now WLTP (Worldwide harmonised Light vehicles Test Procedure) plus RDE (Real Driving Emissions with portable emission measurement system, PEMS).

3

Heavy-duty engines are tested on an engine dynamometer (g/kWh;

4

Stage Introduced (new cars, approx.) Key feature Euro 1 1992 Catalytic converters effectively mandatory for petrol cars; unleaded petrol Euro 2 1996 Tighter CO and HC + NOx Euro 3 2000 Separate HC and NOx limits; cold-start test;

5

OBD Euro 4 2005 ≈ 50% reduction of limits;

6

50 ppm sulphur fuel Euro 5 2009 Diesel PM 0.005 g/km → DPF needed;

7

10 ppm sulphur fuel Euro 6 2014 (6d with RDE ≈ 2020) Diesel NOx 0.08 g/km (from 0.18) → SCR/LNT;

8

PN limit for GDI; petrol NOx 0.06 g/km Euro 7 Adopted 2024 (phasing in from ≈ 2026–27) Fuel-neutral limits; adds brake-particle and tyre-abrasion limits and EV battery durability requirements • Bharat Stage (BS) norms (India, based on Euro):

9

BS-I (2000) … BS-IV nationwide 2017;

10

India skipped BS-V and moved directly to BS-VI from 1 April 2020 (≈ Euro 6), with RDE and OBD-II in BS-VI phase 2 (2023).

11

Because Nepal imports most vehicles and fuel from India, Indian norms strongly affect Nepal. • Other standards:

12

US EPA Tier 1–3 and California (CARB) LEV/ZEV programmes;

13

Japan standards. • Nepal:

14

Nepal Vehicle Mass Emission Standard (NVMES) introduced in 2000 (≈ Euro 1), later revised to ≈ Euro 3 (2012); in-use vehicle emission standards with periodic testing and green stickers;

15

Nepal has moved toward Euro 6/BS-VI-equivalent norms and fuels in line with India.

16

(Check the latest Government of Nepal notices for current dates and limits.) Road Safety Standards • Vehicle safety standards:

17

UN ECE regulations (WP.29) and FMVSS (USA) for brakes (ABS mandatory in many markets), lighting, seat belts and anchorages, airbags, crash tests (frontal offset, side impact, pedestrian protection), ESC, tyres, helmets (ECE 22.05/22.06), child restraints;

18

AIS (Automotive Industry Standards) in India. • New Car Assessment Programmes (NCAP):

19

Euro NCAP, Global NCAP, ASEAN NCAP, Bharat NCAP (2023) — star ratings for adult and child occupant protection, pedestrian safety and safety assist. • Road safety management (UN Decade of Action for Road Safety 2021–2030 — target: halve deaths and injuries by 2030); the '5 E's':

20

Engineering (roads and vehicles), Enforcement, Education, Emergency care, Evaluation; the Safe System approach (safe roads, safe speeds, safe vehicles, safe road users, post-crash response). • Vehicle roadworthiness: periodic fitness tests (brakes, lights, steering, suspension, emissions, tyres), speed governors on public and heavy vehicles, overloading control (weigh bridges), tachographs/GPS tracking.

21

Road Transport Management • Functions: regulation of vehicles and drivers (registration, licensing, fitness), route permits and public transport management (fares, schedules, bus stops, operator licences), freight transport management, traffic management (signals, lane discipline, parking, one-way systems), road-safety programmes, emission control, revenue (vehicle tax, road fees), data and planning (ITS — intelligent transport systems, e-ticketing, GPS fleet tracking). • In Nepal: the Department of Transport Management (DoTM) under the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport handles vehicle registration, driving licences, route permits and vehicle fitness through Transport Management Offices;

22

Nepal Police (Traffic Police) enforces traffic rules;

23

Department of Roads (DoR) builds and maintains the strategic road network; provincial and local governments also manage transport services; the Kathmandu Valley Public Transport Authority coordinates valley public transport.

24

Road Norms and Standards • Road classification (Nepal Road Standard):

25

National Highways, Feeder Roads (major and minor), District Roads, Urban Roads, Village/Agricultural roads — with design standards set by the Nepal Road Standard (NRS 2070) and related DoR guidelines (geometric design, pavement design, bridges, traffic signs as per the Traffic Signs Manual). • Design elements: design speed, lane width (≈ 3.5 m for highways;

26

3.0–3.25 m for lower classes), shoulders, carriageway and right-of-way width, sight distances (stopping and overtaking), horizontal curve radius and super-elevation (e = v²/(gR) − f, maximum ≈ 7–10%), gradient limits (ruling ≈ 5–7%, steeper in hills), camber for drainage (≈ 2–3%), hairpin bends in hills. • Traffic signs: mandatory/regulatory (circular, red border — e.g., speed limit, no entry), warning (triangular — bends, school), informatory/guide (rectangular — directions); road markings (centre lines, lane lines, zebra crossings), traffic signals (red-amber-green). • Vehicle dimension and axle-load limits (e.g., maximum width ≈ 2.5 m; axle load limits per DoR/DoTM rules — typically ≈ 10.2 t for a single axle in Nepal, verify current rule) to protect pavements and bridges.